diff --git a/etcdserver/apply.go b/etcdserver/apply.go
index 0b27b3f5b..b90e0a099 100644
--- a/etcdserver/apply.go
+++ b/etcdserver/apply.go
@@ -16,7 +16,6 @@ package etcdserver
 
 import (
 	"bytes"
-	"fmt"
 	"sort"
 	"time"
 
@@ -30,11 +29,6 @@ import (
 )
 
 const (
-	// noTxn is an invalid txn ID.
-	// To apply with independent Range, Put, Delete, you can pass noTxn
-	// to apply functions instead of a valid txn ID.
-	noTxn = -1
-
 	warnApplyDuration = 100 * time.Millisecond
 )
 
@@ -51,9 +45,9 @@ type applyResult struct {
 type applierV3 interface {
 	Apply(r *pb.InternalRaftRequest) *applyResult
 
-	Put(txnID int64, p *pb.PutRequest) (*pb.PutResponse, error)
-	Range(txnID int64, r *pb.RangeRequest) (*pb.RangeResponse, error)
-	DeleteRange(txnID int64, dr *pb.DeleteRangeRequest) (*pb.DeleteRangeResponse, error)
+	Put(txn mvcc.TxnWrite, p *pb.PutRequest) (*pb.PutResponse, error)
+	Range(txn mvcc.TxnRead, r *pb.RangeRequest) (*pb.RangeResponse, error)
+	DeleteRange(txn mvcc.TxnWrite, dr *pb.DeleteRangeRequest) (*pb.DeleteRangeResponse, error)
 	Txn(rt *pb.TxnRequest) (*pb.TxnResponse, error)
 	Compaction(compaction *pb.CompactionRequest) (*pb.CompactionResponse, <-chan struct{}, error)
 
@@ -99,11 +93,11 @@ func (a *applierV3backend) Apply(r *pb.InternalRaftRequest) *applyResult {
 	// call into a.s.applyV3.F instead of a.F so upper appliers can check individual calls
 	switch {
 	case r.Range != nil:
-		ar.resp, ar.err = a.s.applyV3.Range(noTxn, r.Range)
+		ar.resp, ar.err = a.s.applyV3.Range(nil, r.Range)
 	case r.Put != nil:
-		ar.resp, ar.err = a.s.applyV3.Put(noTxn, r.Put)
+		ar.resp, ar.err = a.s.applyV3.Put(nil, r.Put)
 	case r.DeleteRange != nil:
-		ar.resp, ar.err = a.s.applyV3.DeleteRange(noTxn, r.DeleteRange)
+		ar.resp, ar.err = a.s.applyV3.DeleteRange(nil, r.DeleteRange)
 	case r.Txn != nil:
 		ar.resp, ar.err = a.s.applyV3.Txn(r.Txn)
 	case r.Compaction != nil:
@@ -152,122 +146,87 @@ func (a *applierV3backend) Apply(r *pb.InternalRaftRequest) *applyResult {
 	return ar
 }
 
-func (a *applierV3backend) Put(txnID int64, p *pb.PutRequest) (*pb.PutResponse, error) {
-	resp := &pb.PutResponse{}
+func (a *applierV3backend) Put(txn mvcc.TxnWrite, p *pb.PutRequest) (resp *pb.PutResponse, err error) {
+	resp = &pb.PutResponse{}
 	resp.Header = &pb.ResponseHeader{}
-	var (
-		rev int64
-		err error
-	)
 
-	var rr *mvcc.RangeResult
-	if p.PrevKv || p.IgnoreValue || p.IgnoreLease {
-		if txnID != noTxn {
-			rr, err = a.s.KV().TxnRange(txnID, p.Key, nil, mvcc.RangeOptions{})
-			if err != nil {
-				return nil, err
-			}
-		} else {
-			rr, err = a.s.KV().Range(p.Key, nil, mvcc.RangeOptions{})
-			if err != nil {
-				return nil, err
-			}
-		}
-	}
-
-	if p.IgnoreValue {
-		if rr == nil || len(rr.KVs) == 0 {
-			// ignore_value flag expects previous key-value pair
-			return nil, ErrKeyNotFound
-		}
-		p.Value = rr.KVs[0].Value
-	}
-
-	if p.IgnoreLease {
-		if rr == nil || len(rr.KVs) == 0 {
-			// ignore_lease flag expects previous key-value pair
-			return nil, ErrKeyNotFound
-		}
-		p.Lease = rr.KVs[0].Lease
-	}
-
-	if txnID != noTxn {
-		rev, err = a.s.KV().TxnPut(txnID, p.Key, p.Value, lease.LeaseID(p.Lease))
-		if err != nil {
-			return nil, err
-		}
-	} else {
-		leaseID := lease.LeaseID(p.Lease)
+	val, leaseID := p.Value, lease.LeaseID(p.Lease)
+	if txn == nil {
 		if leaseID != lease.NoLease {
 			if l := a.s.lessor.Lookup(leaseID); l == nil {
 				return nil, lease.ErrLeaseNotFound
 			}
 		}
-		rev = a.s.KV().Put(p.Key, p.Value, leaseID)
+		txn = a.s.KV().Write()
+		defer txn.End()
 	}
-	resp.Header.Revision = rev
-	if p.PrevKv && rr != nil && len(rr.KVs) != 0 {
-		resp.PrevKv = &rr.KVs[0]
+
+	var rr *mvcc.RangeResult
+	if p.IgnoreValue || p.IgnoreLease || p.PrevKv {
+		rr, err = txn.Range(p.Key, nil, mvcc.RangeOptions{})
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
 	}
+	if p.IgnoreValue || p.IgnoreLease {
+		if rr == nil || len(rr.KVs) == 0 {
+			// ignore_{lease,value} flag expects previous key-value pair
+			return nil, ErrKeyNotFound
+		}
+	}
+	if p.IgnoreValue {
+		val = rr.KVs[0].Value
+	}
+	if p.IgnoreLease {
+		leaseID = lease.LeaseID(rr.KVs[0].Lease)
+	}
+	if p.PrevKv {
+		if rr != nil && len(rr.KVs) != 0 {
+			resp.PrevKv = &rr.KVs[0]
+		}
+	}
+
+	resp.Header.Revision = txn.Put(p.Key, val, leaseID)
 	return resp, nil
 }
 
-func (a *applierV3backend) DeleteRange(txnID int64, dr *pb.DeleteRangeRequest) (*pb.DeleteRangeResponse, error) {
+func (a *applierV3backend) DeleteRange(txn mvcc.TxnWrite, dr *pb.DeleteRangeRequest) (*pb.DeleteRangeResponse, error) {
 	resp := &pb.DeleteRangeResponse{}
 	resp.Header = &pb.ResponseHeader{}
 
-	var (
-		n   int64
-		rev int64
-		err error
-	)
+	if txn == nil {
+		txn = a.s.kv.Write()
+		defer txn.End()
+	}
 
 	if isGteRange(dr.RangeEnd) {
 		dr.RangeEnd = []byte{}
 	}
 
-	var rr *mvcc.RangeResult
 	if dr.PrevKv {
-		if txnID != noTxn {
-			rr, err = a.s.KV().TxnRange(txnID, dr.Key, dr.RangeEnd, mvcc.RangeOptions{})
-			if err != nil {
-				return nil, err
-			}
-		} else {
-			rr, err = a.s.KV().Range(dr.Key, dr.RangeEnd, mvcc.RangeOptions{})
-			if err != nil {
-				return nil, err
-			}
-		}
-	}
-
-	if txnID != noTxn {
-		n, rev, err = a.s.KV().TxnDeleteRange(txnID, dr.Key, dr.RangeEnd)
+		rr, err := txn.Range(dr.Key, dr.RangeEnd, mvcc.RangeOptions{})
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, err
 		}
-	} else {
-		n, rev = a.s.KV().DeleteRange(dr.Key, dr.RangeEnd)
-	}
-
-	resp.Deleted = n
-	if rr != nil {
-		for i := range rr.KVs {
-			resp.PrevKvs = append(resp.PrevKvs, &rr.KVs[i])
+		if rr != nil {
+			for i := range rr.KVs {
+				resp.PrevKvs = append(resp.PrevKvs, &rr.KVs[i])
+			}
 		}
 	}
-	resp.Header.Revision = rev
+
+	resp.Deleted, resp.Header.Revision = txn.DeleteRange(dr.Key, dr.RangeEnd)
 	return resp, nil
 }
 
-func (a *applierV3backend) Range(txnID int64, r *pb.RangeRequest) (*pb.RangeResponse, error) {
+func (a *applierV3backend) Range(txn mvcc.TxnRead, r *pb.RangeRequest) (*pb.RangeResponse, error) {
 	resp := &pb.RangeResponse{}
 	resp.Header = &pb.ResponseHeader{}
 
-	var (
-		rr  *mvcc.RangeResult
-		err error
-	)
+	if txn == nil {
+		txn = a.s.kv.Read()
+		defer txn.End()
+	}
 
 	if isGteRange(r.RangeEnd) {
 		r.RangeEnd = []byte{}
@@ -291,16 +250,9 @@ func (a *applierV3backend) Range(txnID int64, r *pb.RangeRequest) (*pb.RangeResp
 		Count: r.CountOnly,
 	}
 
-	if txnID != noTxn {
-		rr, err = a.s.KV().TxnRange(txnID, r.Key, r.RangeEnd, ro)
-		if err != nil {
-			return nil, err
-		}
-	} else {
-		rr, err = a.s.KV().Range(r.Key, r.RangeEnd, ro)
-		if err != nil {
-			return nil, err
-		}
+	rr, err := txn.Range(r.Key, r.RangeEnd, ro)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
 	}
 
 	if r.MaxModRevision != 0 {
@@ -387,23 +339,24 @@ func (a *applierV3backend) Txn(rt *pb.TxnRequest) (*pb.TxnResponse, error) {
 		return nil, err
 	}
 
-	// When executing the operations of txn, we need to hold the txn lock.
-	// So the reader will not see any intermediate results.
-	txnID := a.s.KV().TxnBegin()
-
 	resps := make([]*pb.ResponseOp, len(reqs))
-	for i := range reqs {
-		resps[i] = a.applyUnion(txnID, reqs[i])
-	}
 
-	err := a.s.KV().TxnEnd(txnID)
-	if err != nil {
-		panic(fmt.Sprint("unexpected error when closing txn", txnID))
+	// When executing the operations of txn, etcd must hold the txn lock so
+	// readers do not see any intermediate results.
+	// TODO: use Read txn if only Ranges
+	txn := a.s.KV().Write()
+	for i := range reqs {
+		resps[i] = a.applyUnion(txn, reqs[i])
 	}
+	rev := txn.Rev()
+	if len(txn.Changes()) != 0 {
+		rev++
+	}
+	txn.End()
 
 	txnResp := &pb.TxnResponse{}
 	txnResp.Header = &pb.ResponseHeader{}
-	txnResp.Header.Revision = a.s.KV().Rev()
+	txnResp.Header.Revision = rev
 	txnResp.Responses = resps
 	txnResp.Succeeded = ok
 	return txnResp, nil
@@ -417,9 +370,6 @@ func (a *applierV3backend) applyCompare(c *pb.Compare) (int64, bool) {
 	rev := rr.Rev
 
 	if err != nil {
-		if err == mvcc.ErrTxnIDMismatch {
-			panic("unexpected txn ID mismatch error")
-		}
 		return rev, false
 	}
 	var ckv mvccpb.KeyValue
@@ -483,11 +433,11 @@ func (a *applierV3backend) applyCompare(c *pb.Compare) (int64, bool) {
 	return rev, true
 }
 
-func (a *applierV3backend) applyUnion(txnID int64, union *pb.RequestOp) *pb.ResponseOp {
+func (a *applierV3backend) applyUnion(txn mvcc.TxnWrite, union *pb.RequestOp) *pb.ResponseOp {
 	switch tv := union.Request.(type) {
 	case *pb.RequestOp_RequestRange:
 		if tv.RequestRange != nil {
-			resp, err := a.Range(txnID, tv.RequestRange)
+			resp, err := a.Range(txn, tv.RequestRange)
 			if err != nil {
 				plog.Panicf("unexpected error during txn: %v", err)
 			}
@@ -495,7 +445,7 @@ func (a *applierV3backend) applyUnion(txnID int64, union *pb.RequestOp) *pb.Resp
 		}
 	case *pb.RequestOp_RequestPut:
 		if tv.RequestPut != nil {
-			resp, err := a.Put(txnID, tv.RequestPut)
+			resp, err := a.Put(txn, tv.RequestPut)
 			if err != nil {
 				plog.Panicf("unexpected error during txn: %v", err)
 			}
@@ -503,7 +453,7 @@ func (a *applierV3backend) applyUnion(txnID int64, union *pb.RequestOp) *pb.Resp
 		}
 	case *pb.RequestOp_RequestDeleteRange:
 		if tv.RequestDeleteRange != nil {
-			resp, err := a.DeleteRange(txnID, tv.RequestDeleteRange)
+			resp, err := a.DeleteRange(txn, tv.RequestDeleteRange)
 			if err != nil {
 				plog.Panicf("unexpected error during txn: %v", err)
 			}
@@ -605,7 +555,7 @@ type applierV3Capped struct {
 // with Puts so that the number of keys in the store is capped.
 func newApplierV3Capped(base applierV3) applierV3 { return &applierV3Capped{applierV3: base} }
 
-func (a *applierV3Capped) Put(txnID int64, p *pb.PutRequest) (*pb.PutResponse, error) {
+func (a *applierV3Capped) Put(txn mvcc.TxnWrite, p *pb.PutRequest) (*pb.PutResponse, error) {
 	return nil, ErrNoSpace
 }
 
@@ -699,9 +649,9 @@ func newQuotaApplierV3(s *EtcdServer, app applierV3) applierV3 {
 	return &quotaApplierV3{app, NewBackendQuota(s)}
 }
 
-func (a *quotaApplierV3) Put(txnID int64, p *pb.PutRequest) (*pb.PutResponse, error) {
+func (a *quotaApplierV3) Put(txn mvcc.TxnWrite, p *pb.PutRequest) (*pb.PutResponse, error) {
 	ok := a.q.Available(p)
-	resp, err := a.applierV3.Put(txnID, p)
+	resp, err := a.applierV3.Put(txn, p)
 	if err == nil && !ok {
 		err = ErrNoSpace
 	}
diff --git a/etcdserver/apply_auth.go b/etcdserver/apply_auth.go
index 4868e855c..7da4ae45d 100644
--- a/etcdserver/apply_auth.go
+++ b/etcdserver/apply_auth.go
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/coreos/etcd/auth"
 	pb "github.com/coreos/etcd/etcdserver/etcdserverpb"
+	"github.com/coreos/etcd/mvcc"
 )
 
 type authApplierV3 struct {
@@ -58,7 +59,7 @@ func (aa *authApplierV3) Apply(r *pb.InternalRaftRequest) *applyResult {
 	return ret
 }
 
-func (aa *authApplierV3) Put(txnID int64, r *pb.PutRequest) (*pb.PutResponse, error) {
+func (aa *authApplierV3) Put(txn mvcc.TxnWrite, r *pb.PutRequest) (*pb.PutResponse, error) {
 	if err := aa.as.IsPutPermitted(&aa.authInfo, r.Key); err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
@@ -68,17 +69,17 @@ func (aa *authApplierV3) Put(txnID int64, r *pb.PutRequest) (*pb.PutResponse, er
 			return nil, err
 		}
 	}
-	return aa.applierV3.Put(txnID, r)
+	return aa.applierV3.Put(txn, r)
 }
 
-func (aa *authApplierV3) Range(txnID int64, r *pb.RangeRequest) (*pb.RangeResponse, error) {
+func (aa *authApplierV3) Range(txn mvcc.TxnRead, r *pb.RangeRequest) (*pb.RangeResponse, error) {
 	if err := aa.as.IsRangePermitted(&aa.authInfo, r.Key, r.RangeEnd); err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
-	return aa.applierV3.Range(txnID, r)
+	return aa.applierV3.Range(txn, r)
 }
 
-func (aa *authApplierV3) DeleteRange(txnID int64, r *pb.DeleteRangeRequest) (*pb.DeleteRangeResponse, error) {
+func (aa *authApplierV3) DeleteRange(txn mvcc.TxnWrite, r *pb.DeleteRangeRequest) (*pb.DeleteRangeResponse, error) {
 	if err := aa.as.IsDeleteRangePermitted(&aa.authInfo, r.Key, r.RangeEnd); err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
@@ -89,7 +90,7 @@ func (aa *authApplierV3) DeleteRange(txnID int64, r *pb.DeleteRangeRequest) (*pb
 		}
 	}
 
-	return aa.applierV3.DeleteRange(txnID, r)
+	return aa.applierV3.DeleteRange(txn, r)
 }
 
 func checkTxnReqsPermission(as auth.AuthStore, ai *auth.AuthInfo, reqs []*pb.RequestOp) error {
diff --git a/etcdserver/server.go b/etcdserver/server.go
index 759200a48..dc6629852 100644
--- a/etcdserver/server.go
+++ b/etcdserver/server.go
@@ -807,7 +807,7 @@ func (s *EtcdServer) applySnapshot(ep *etcdProgress, apply *apply) {
 	// If we recover mvcc.KV first, it will attach the keys to the wrong lessor before it recovers.
 	if s.lessor != nil {
 		plog.Info("recovering lessor...")
-		s.lessor.Recover(newbe, s.kv)
+		s.lessor.Recover(newbe, func() lease.TxnDelete { return s.kv.Write() })
 		plog.Info("finished recovering lessor")
 	}
 
diff --git a/etcdserver/v3_server.go b/etcdserver/v3_server.go
index 1472ac34b..c53c17539 100644
--- a/etcdserver/v3_server.go
+++ b/etcdserver/v3_server.go
@@ -107,7 +107,7 @@ func (s *EtcdServer) Range(ctx context.Context, r *pb.RangeRequest) (*pb.RangeRe
 	chk := func(ai *auth.AuthInfo) error {
 		return s.authStore.IsRangePermitted(ai, r.Key, r.RangeEnd)
 	}
-	get := func() { resp, err = s.applyV3Base.Range(noTxn, r) }
+	get := func() { resp, err = s.applyV3Base.Range(nil, r) }
 	if serr := s.doSerialize(ctx, chk, get); serr != nil {
 		return nil, serr
 	}
@@ -122,7 +122,7 @@ func (s *EtcdServer) legacyRange(ctx context.Context, r *pb.RangeRequest) (*pb.R
 		chk := func(ai *auth.AuthInfo) error {
 			return s.authStore.IsRangePermitted(ai, r.Key, r.RangeEnd)
 		}
-		get := func() { resp, err = s.applyV3Base.Range(noTxn, r) }
+		get := func() { resp, err = s.applyV3Base.Range(nil, r) }
 		if serr := s.doSerialize(ctx, chk, get); serr != nil {
 			return nil, serr
 		}