From 794136c76281e37e7eb13814ac8ef60120f7e48e Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Hayden Young <haydenyoung@wijiti.com>
Date: Thu, 25 May 2023 00:48:01 +0800
Subject: [PATCH] refactor: Functionize identity provider. (#74)

* refactor: Functionize identity provider.

* docs: Building a custom identity provider.

* refactor: Functionize clock.
---
 src/access-controllers/ipfs.js         |   4 +-
 src/access-controllers/orbitdb.js      |  10 +--
 src/address.js                         |   4 +-
 src/db/documents.js                    |  16 ++--
 src/db/events.js                       |  20 ++---
 src/db/keyvalue-indexed.js             |   8 +-
 src/db/keyvalue.js                     |  12 +--
 src/identities/identities.js           |  22 ++---
 src/identities/identity.js             |   6 +-
 src/identities/index.js                |   3 +-
 src/identities/providers/index.js      |  52 +++++++++++-
 src/identities/providers/interface.js  |  26 ------
 src/identities/providers/publickey.js  |  79 +++++++++++++-----
 src/key-store.js                       |  16 ++--
 src/manifest.js                        |   6 +-
 src/oplog/clock.js                     |  41 ++++------
 src/oplog/conflict-resolution.js       |  12 +--
 src/oplog/entry.js                     |  12 +--
 src/oplog/heads.js                     |   2 +-
 src/oplog/log.js                       |  18 ++---
 src/storage/composed.js                |   2 +-
 src/storage/ipfs-block.js              |   2 +-
 src/storage/level.js                   |   2 +-
 src/storage/lru.js                     |   2 +-
 src/storage/memory.js                  |   2 +-
 src/utils/create-id.js                 |   2 +-
 src/utils/ensure-ac-address.js         |   2 +-
 test/identities/identities.test.js     |  26 ++++--
 test/oplog/clock.test.js               |  94 +++++++--------------
 test/oplog/conflict-resolution.test.js | 108 ++++++++++++-------------
 test/oplog/entry.test.js               |   3 +-
 test/oplog/join.test.js                |  26 +++---
 32 files changed, 331 insertions(+), 309 deletions(-)
 delete mode 100644 src/identities/providers/interface.js

diff --git a/src/access-controllers/ipfs.js b/src/access-controllers/ipfs.js
index e530f20..5e3ff66 100644
--- a/src/access-controllers/ipfs.js
+++ b/src/access-controllers/ipfs.js
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ const type = 'ipfs'
  * @param {Array} [params.write] An array of identity ids who can write to the
  * database.
  * @param {module:Storage} [params.storage] An instance of a compatible storage.
- * @returns {module:AccessControllers.AccessControllers-IPFS} An
+ * @return {module:AccessControllers.AccessControllers-IPFS} An
  * IPFSAccessController function.
  * @memberof module:AccessControllers
  */
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ const IPFSAccessController = ({ write, storage } = {}) => async ({ orbitdb, iden
   /**
    * Verifies the write permission of an entry.
    * @param {module:Log~Entry} entry An entry to verify.
-   * @returns {boolean} True if the entry's identity has write permission,
+   * @return {boolean} True if the entry's identity has write permission,
    * false otherwise.
    * @memberof module:AccessControllers.AccessControllers-IPFS
    */
diff --git a/src/access-controllers/orbitdb.js b/src/access-controllers/orbitdb.js
index bc2a2e9..e47fac0 100644
--- a/src/access-controllers/orbitdb.js
+++ b/src/access-controllers/orbitdb.js
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ const type = 'orbitdb'
  * IPFSAccessController.
  * @param {Array} [params.write] An array of identity ids who can write to the
  * database.
- * @returns {module:AccessControllers.AccessControllers-OrbitDB} An
+ * @return {module:AccessControllers.AccessControllers-OrbitDB} An
  * IPFSAccessController function.
  * @memberof module:AccessControllers
  */
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ const OrbitDBAccessController = ({ write } = {}) => async ({ orbitdb, identities
   /**
    * Verifies the write permission of an entry.
    * @param {module:Log~Entry} entry An entry to verify.
-   * @returns {boolean} True if the entry's identity has write permission,
+   * @return {boolean} True if the entry's identity has write permission,
    * false otherwise.
    * @memberof module:AccessControllers.AccessControllers-OrbitDB
    * @instance
@@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ const OrbitDBAccessController = ({ write } = {}) => async ({ orbitdb, identities
    *
    * The returned capabilities will be a mixture of admin and write access
    * addresses.
-   * @returns {Array} A list of addresses with admin and write access.
+   * @return {Array} A list of addresses with admin and write access.
    * @memberof module:AccessControllers.AccessControllers-OrbitDB
    * @instance
    */
@@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ const OrbitDBAccessController = ({ write } = {}) => async ({ orbitdb, identities
   /**
    * Gets a list of addresses with the specified capability.
    * @param {string} capability A capability (e.g. write).
-   * @returns {Array} One or more addresses with the spcified capability.
+   * @return {Array} One or more addresses with the spcified capability.
    * @memberof module:AccessControllers.AccessControllers-OrbitDB
    * @instance
    */
@@ -120,7 +120,7 @@ const OrbitDBAccessController = ({ write } = {}) => async ({ orbitdb, identities
    * Checks whether an address has a capability.
    * @param {string} capability A capability (e.g. write).
    * @param {string} key An address.
-   * @returns {boolean} True if the address has the capability, false
+   * @return {boolean} True if the address has the capability, false
    * otherwise.
    * @memberof module:AccessControllers.AccessControllers-OrbitDB
    * @instance
diff --git a/src/address.js b/src/address.js
index ebc8586..1ffb558 100644
--- a/src/address.js
+++ b/src/address.js
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ const parseAddress = (address) => {
  * Creates an instance of OrbitDBAddress.
  * @function
  * @param {OrbitDBAddress|string} address A valid OrbitDB database address.
- * @returns {OrbitDBAddress} An instance of OrbitDBAddress.
+ * @return {OrbitDBAddress} An instance of OrbitDBAddress.
  * @instance
  */
 const OrbitDBAddress = (address) => {
@@ -89,7 +89,7 @@ const OrbitDBAddress = (address) => {
   /**
    * Returns OrbitDBAddress as a string.
    * @function
-   * @returns {string} The string form of OrbitDBAddress.
+   * @return {string} The string form of OrbitDBAddress.
    * @memberof module:Address~OrbitDBAddress
    */
   const toString = () => {
diff --git a/src/db/documents.js b/src/db/documents.js
index 2780f0a..99be777 100644
--- a/src/db/documents.js
+++ b/src/db/documents.js
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ const DefaultOptions = { indexBy: '_id' }
  * Defines a Documents database.
  * @param {Object} options Various options for configuring the Document store.
  * @param {string} [params.indexBy=_id] An index.
- * @returns {module:Database.Database-Documents} A Documents function.
+ * @return {module:Database.Database-Documents} A Documents function.
  * @memberof module:Database
  */
 const Documents = ({ indexBy } = DefaultOptions) => async ({ ipfs, identity, address, name, access, directory, meta, headsStorage, entryStorage, indexStorage, referencesCount, syncAutomatically, onUpdate }) => {
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ const Documents = ({ indexBy } = DefaultOptions) => async ({ ipfs, identity, add
    * Stores a document to the store.
    * @function
    * @param {Object} doc An object representing a key/value list of fields.
-   * @returns {string} The hash of the new oplog entry.
+   * @return {string} The hash of the new oplog entry.
    * @memberof module:Database.Database-Documents
    * @instance
    */
@@ -82,7 +82,7 @@ const Documents = ({ indexBy } = DefaultOptions) => async ({ ipfs, identity, add
    * Deletes a document from the store.
    * @function
    * @param {string} key The key of the doc to delete.
-   * @returns {string} The hash of the new oplog entry.
+   * @return {string} The hash of the new oplog entry.
    * @memberof module:Database.Database-Documents
    * @instance
    */
@@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ const Documents = ({ indexBy } = DefaultOptions) => async ({ ipfs, identity, add
    * Gets a document from the store by key.
    * @function
    * @param {string} key The key of the doc to get.
-   * @returns {Object} The doc corresponding to key or null.
+   * @return {Object} The doc corresponding to key or null.
    * @memberof module:Database.Database-Documents
    * @instance
    */
@@ -113,7 +113,7 @@ const Documents = ({ indexBy } = DefaultOptions) => async ({ ipfs, identity, add
    * @function
    * @param {function(Object)} findFn A function for querying for specific
    * results.
-   * @returns {Array} Found documents.
+   * @return {Array} Found documents.
    * @memberof module:Database.Database-Documents
    * @instance
    */
@@ -132,8 +132,8 @@ const Documents = ({ indexBy } = DefaultOptions) => async ({ ipfs, identity, add
   /**
    * Iterates over documents.
    * @function
-   * @params {Object} [filters={}] Various filters to apply to the iterator.
-   * @params {string} [filters.amount=-1] The number of results to fetch.
+   * @param {Object} [filters={}] Various filters to apply to the iterator.
+   * @param {string} [filters.amount=-1] The number of results to fetch.
    * @yields [string, string, string] The next document as hash/key/value.
    * @memberof module:Database.Database-Documents
    * @instance
@@ -160,7 +160,7 @@ const Documents = ({ indexBy } = DefaultOptions) => async ({ ipfs, identity, add
   /**
    * Returns all documents.
    * @function
-   * @returns [][string, string, string] An array of documents as hash/key
+   * @return [][string, string, string] An array of documents as hash/key
    * value entries.
    * @memberof module:Database.Database-Documents
    * @instance
diff --git a/src/db/events.js b/src/db/events.js
index 35d56f6..6f42fd9 100644
--- a/src/db/events.js
+++ b/src/db/events.js
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ import Database from '../database.js'
 
 /**
  * Defines an Events database.
- * @returns {module:Database.Database-Events} A Events function.
+ * @return {module:Database.Database-Events} A Events function.
  * @memberof module:Database
  */
 const Events = () => async ({ ipfs, identity, address, name, access, directory, meta, headsStorage, entryStorage, indexStorage, referencesCount, syncAutomatically, onUpdate }) => {
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ const Events = () => async ({ ipfs, identity, address, name, access, directory,
    * Adds an event to the store.
    * @function
    * @param {*} value The event to be added.
-   * @returns {string} The hash of the new oplog entry.
+   * @return {string} The hash of the new oplog entry.
    * @memberof module:Database.Database-Events
    * @instance
    */
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ const Events = () => async ({ ipfs, identity, address, name, access, directory,
    * Gets an event from the store by hash.
    * @function
    * @param {string} hash The hash of the event to get.
-   * @returns {*} The value corresponding to hash or null.
+   * @return {*} The value corresponding to hash or null.
    * @memberof module:Database.Database-Events
    * @instance
    */
@@ -73,16 +73,16 @@ const Events = () => async ({ ipfs, identity, address, name, access, directory,
   /**
    * Iterates over events.
    * @function
-   * @params {Object} [filters={}] Various filters to apply to the iterator.
-   * @params {string} [filters.gt] All events which are greater than the
+   * @param {Object} [filters={}] Various filters to apply to the iterator.
+   * @param {string} [filters.gt] All events which are greater than the
    * given hash.
-   * @params {string} [filters.gte] All events which are greater than or equal
+   * @param {string} [filters.gte] All events which are greater than or equal
    * to the given hash.
-   * @params {string} [filters.lt] All events which are less than the given
+   * @param {string} [filters.lt] All events which are less than the given
    * hash.
-   * @params {string} [filters.lte] All events which are less than or equal to
+   * @param {string} [filters.lte] All events which are less than or equal to
    * the given hash.
-   * @params {string} [filters.amount=-1] The number of results to fetch.
+   * @param {string} [filters.amount=-1] The number of results to fetch.
    * @yields [string, string] The next event as hash/value.
    * @memberof module:Database.Database-Events
    * @instance
@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ const Events = () => async ({ ipfs, identity, address, name, access, directory,
   /**
    * Returns all events.
    * @function
-   * @returns [][string, string] An array of events as hash/value entries.
+   * @return [][string, string] An array of events as hash/value entries.
    * @memberof module:Database.Database-Events
    * @instance
    */
diff --git a/src/db/keyvalue-indexed.js b/src/db/keyvalue-indexed.js
index 3c0716c..ded37df 100644
--- a/src/db/keyvalue-indexed.js
+++ b/src/db/keyvalue-indexed.js
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ const valueEncoding = 'json'
  * @param {Object} options Various options for configuring the KeyValueIndexed
  * store.
  * @param {module:Storage} [storage=LevelStorage] A compatible storage.
- * @returns {module:Database.Database-KeyValueIndexed} A KeyValueIndexed
+ * @return {module:Database.Database-KeyValueIndexed} A KeyValueIndexed
  * function.
  * @memberof module:Database
  */
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ const KeyValueIndexed = ({ storage } = {}) => async ({ ipfs, identity, address,
    * Gets a value from the store by key.
    * @function
    * @param {string} key The key of the value to get.
-   * @returns {*} The value corresponding to key or null.
+   * @return {*} The value corresponding to key or null.
    * @memberof module:Database.Database-KeyValueIndexed
    * @instance
    */
@@ -108,8 +108,8 @@ const KeyValueIndexed = ({ storage } = {}) => async ({ ipfs, identity, address,
   /**
    * Iterates over keyvalue pairs.
    * @function
-   * @params {Object} [filters={}] Various filters to apply to the iterator.
-   * @params {string} [filters.amount=-1] The number of results to fetch.
+   * @param {Object} [filters={}] Various filters to apply to the iterator.
+   * @param {string} [filters.amount=-1] The number of results to fetch.
    * @yields [string, string, string] The next key/value as key/value/hash.
    * @memberof module:Database.Database-KeyValueIndexed
    * @instance
diff --git a/src/db/keyvalue.js b/src/db/keyvalue.js
index 7df4f1c..ba356fd 100644
--- a/src/db/keyvalue.js
+++ b/src/db/keyvalue.js
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ import Database from '../database.js'
 
 /**
  * Defines an KeyValue database.
- * @returns {module:Database.Database-KeyValue} A KeyValue function.
+ * @return {module:Database.Database-KeyValue} A KeyValue function.
  * @memberof module:Database
  */
 const KeyValue = () => async ({ ipfs, identity, address, name, access, directory, meta, headsStorage, entryStorage, indexStorage, referencesCount, syncAutomatically, onUpdate }) => {
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ const KeyValue = () => async ({ ipfs, identity, address, name, access, directory
    * @function
    * @param {string} key The key to store.
    * @param {*} value The value to store.
-   * @returns {string} The hash of the new oplog entry.
+   * @return {string} The hash of the new oplog entry.
    * @memberof module:Database.Database-KeyValue
    * @instance
    */
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ const KeyValue = () => async ({ ipfs, identity, address, name, access, directory
    * Gets a value from the store by key.
    * @function
    * @param {string} key The key of the value to get.
-   * @returns {*} The value corresponding to key or null.
+   * @return {*} The value corresponding to key or null.
    * @memberof module:Database.Database-KeyValue
    * @instance
    */
@@ -91,8 +91,8 @@ const KeyValue = () => async ({ ipfs, identity, address, name, access, directory
   /**
    * Iterates over keyvalue pairs.
    * @function
-   * @params {Object} [filters={}] Various filters to apply to the iterator.
-   * @params {string} [filters.amount=-1] The number of results to fetch.
+   * @param {Object} [filters={}] Various filters to apply to the iterator.
+   * @param {string} [filters.amount=-1] The number of results to fetch.
    * @yields [string, string, string] The next key/value as key/value/hash.
    * @memberof module:Database.Database-KeyValue
    * @instance
@@ -119,7 +119,7 @@ const KeyValue = () => async ({ ipfs, identity, address, name, access, directory
   /**
    * Returns all key/value pairs.
    * @function
-   * @returns [][string, string, string] An array of key/value pairs as
+   * @return [][string, string, string] An array of key/value pairs as
    * key/value/hash entries.
    * @memberof module:Database.Database-KeyValue
    * @instance
diff --git a/src/identities/identities.js b/src/identities/identities.js
index b0bf19f..024711e 100644
--- a/src/identities/identities.js
+++ b/src/identities/identities.js
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ import KeyStore, { signMessage, verifyMessage } from '../key-store.js'
 import { LRUStorage, IPFSBlockStorage, MemoryStorage, ComposedStorage } from '../storage/index.js'
 import pathJoin from '../utils/path-join.js'
 
-const DefaultProviderType = PublicKeyIdentityProvider.type
+const DefaultProviderType = 'publickey'
 const DefaultIdentityKeysPath = pathJoin('./orbitdb', 'identities')
 
 const supportedTypes = {
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ const supportedTypes = {
  * module.
  * @param {IPFS} [params.ipfs] An instance of IPFS. This param is not required
  * if storage is provided.
- * @returns {module:Identities~Identities} An instance of Identities.
+ * @return {module:Identities~Identities} An instance of Identities.
  * @instance
  */
 const Identities = async ({ keystore, path, storage, ipfs } = {}) => {
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ const Identities = async ({ keystore, path, storage, ipfs } = {}) => {
   /**
    * Gets an identity by hash.
    * @param {string} hash An identity hash.
-   * @returns {Identity} An instance of identity.
+   * @return {Identity} An instance of identity.
    * @memberof module:Identities~Identities
    * @instance
    */
@@ -72,8 +72,8 @@ const Identities = async ({ keystore, path, storage, ipfs } = {}) => {
   /**
    * Creates an identity, adding it to storage.
    * @param {Object} options Various options for configuring a new identity.
-   * @param {string} [options.type=PublicKeyIdentityProvider.type] The type of provider to use for generating an identity.
-   * @returns {Identity} An instance of identity.
+   * @param {string} [options.type=publickey] The type of provider to use for generating an identity.
+   * @return {Identity} An instance of identity.
    * @memberof module:Identities~Identities
    * @instance
    */
@@ -81,8 +81,8 @@ const Identities = async ({ keystore, path, storage, ipfs } = {}) => {
     options.keystore = keystore
 
     const type = options.type || DefaultProviderType
-    const Provider = getProviderFor(type)
-    const identityProvider = new Provider(options)
+    const Provider = getProviderFor(type).default
+    const identityProvider = Provider(options)
     const id = await identityProvider.getId(options)
     const privateKey = await keystore.getKey(id) || await keystore.createKey(id)
     const publicKey = keystore.getPublic(privateKey)
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ const Identities = async ({ keystore, path, storage, ipfs } = {}) => {
   /**
    * Verifies an identity using the identity's provider.
    * @param {Identity} identity The identity to verify.
-   * @returns {boolean} True the identity is valid, false otherwise.
+   * @return {boolean} True the identity is valid, false otherwise.
    * @memberof module:Identities~Identities
    */
   const verifyIdentity = async (identity) => {
@@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ const Identities = async ({ keystore, path, storage, ipfs } = {}) => {
    * Signs data using an identity.
    * @param {Identity} identity The identity to use for signing.
    * @param {string} data The data to sign.
-   * @returns {string} The signed data.
+   * @return {string} The signed data.
    * @throws Private signing key not fund from KeyStore when no signing key can
    * be retrieved.
    * @memberof module:Identities~Identities
@@ -170,7 +170,7 @@ const Identities = async ({ keystore, path, storage, ipfs } = {}) => {
 /**
  * Checks whether an identity provider is supported.
  * @param {string} type The identity provider type.
- * @returns {boolean} True if the identity provider is supported, false
+ * @return {boolean} True if the identity provider is supported, false
  * otherwise.
  * @static
  */
@@ -181,7 +181,7 @@ const isProviderSupported = (type) => {
 /**
  * Gets an identity provider.
  * @param {string} type The identity provider type.
- * @returns {IdentityProvider} The IdentityProvider module corresponding to
+ * @return {IdentityProvider} The IdentityProvider module corresponding to
  * type.
  * @throws IdentityProvider type is not supported if the identity provider is
  * not supported.
diff --git a/src/identities/identity.js b/src/identities/identity.js
index 9596a9e..f57066d 100644
--- a/src/identities/identity.js
+++ b/src/identities/identity.js
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ const hashStringEncoding = base58btc
  * @param {string} params.type The type of identity provider.
  * @param {function} params.sign A sign function.
  * @param {function} params.verify A verify function.
- * @returns {module:Identity~Identity} An instance of Identity.
+ * @return {module:Identity~Identity} An instance of Identity.
  * @throws Identity id is required if id is not provided.
  * @throws Invalid public key if publicKey is not provided.
  * @throws Signatures object is required if signature is not provided.
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ const Identity = async ({ id, publicKey, signatures, type, sign, verify } = {})
 /**
  * Encode an Identity to a serializable form.
  * @param {Identity} identity Identity to encode,
- * @returns {Object} Object with fields hash and bytes.
+ * @return {Object} Object with fields hash and bytes.
  * @static
  */
 const _encodeIdentity = async (identity) => {
@@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ const _encodeIdentity = async (identity) => {
 /**
  * Decode an Identity from bytes
  * @param {Uint8Array} bytes Bytes from which to decode an Identity from
- * @returns {Identity}
+ * @return {Identity}
  * @static
  */
 const decodeIdentity = async (bytes) => {
diff --git a/src/identities/index.js b/src/identities/index.js
index 688b441..e2b6610 100644
--- a/src/identities/index.js
+++ b/src/identities/index.js
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-/** @module IdentityProviders */
 export {
   default as Identities,
   addIdentityProvider,
@@ -12,4 +11,4 @@ export {
   isEqual
 } from './identity.js'
 
-export { default as PublicKeyIdentityProvider } from './providers/publickey.js'
+export { PublicKeyIdentityProvider } from './providers/index.js'
diff --git a/src/identities/providers/index.js b/src/identities/providers/index.js
index d772903..35620ef 100644
--- a/src/identities/providers/index.js
+++ b/src/identities/providers/index.js
@@ -1,4 +1,52 @@
+/**
+ * @module IdentityProviders
+ * @description
+ * Identity providers.
+ *
+ * ## Custom Providers
+ *
+ * An identity provider provides a method for signing and verifying an
+ * identity using a particular cryptographic mechanism.
+ *
+ * A custom identity provider can be used provided the module takes the
+ * following form:
+ * ```javascript
+ * // A unique name for the identity provider
+ * const type = 'custom'
+ *
+ * // check whether the identity was signed by the identity's id.
+ * const verifyIdentity = identity => {
+ *
+ * }
+ *
+ * // The identity provider.
+ * const MyCustomIdentityProvider = ({ keystore }) => {
+ *   const getId = async ({ id } = {}) => {
+ *
+ *   }
+ *
+ *   const signIdentity = async (data, { id } = {}) => {
+ *
+ *   }
+ *
+ *   return {
+ *     getId,
+ *     signIdentity
+ *   }
+ * }
+ *
+ * export { MyCustomIdentityProvider as default, verifyIdentity, type }
+ * ```
+ *
+ * To use it, add it to the list of known identity providers:
+ * ```javascript
+ * import * as MyCustomIdentityProvider from 'my-custom-identity-provider'
+ * addIdentityProvider(MyCustomIdentityProvider)
+ * ```
+ *
+ * where my-custom-identity-provider is the custom module.
+ */
+
 // export { default as DIDIdentityProvider } from './did.js'
 // export { default as EthIdentityProvider } from './ethereum.js'
-export { default as IdentityProvider } from './interface.js'
-export { default as PublicKeyIdentityProvider } from './publickey.js'
+export * as PublicKeyIdentityProvider from './publickey.js'
diff --git a/src/identities/providers/interface.js b/src/identities/providers/interface.js
deleted file mode 100644
index a524f16..0000000
--- a/src/identities/providers/interface.js
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,26 +0,0 @@
-class IdentityProvider {
-  /* Return id of identity (to be signed by orbit-db public key) */
-  async getId (options) {}
-
-  /* Return signature of OrbitDB public key signature */
-  async signIdentity (data, options) {}
-
-  /* Verify a signature of OrbitDB public key signature */
-  static async verifyIdentity (identity) {}
-
-  /* Return the type for this identity provider */
-  static get type () {
-    throw new Error('\'static get type ()\' needs to be defined in the inheriting class')
-  }
-
-  /*
-    Return the type for this identity-proider
-    NOTE! This is the only property of the interface that
-    shouldn't be overridden in the inherited IdentityProvider
-  */
-  get type () {
-    return this.constructor.type
-  }
-}
-
-export default IdentityProvider
diff --git a/src/identities/providers/publickey.js b/src/identities/providers/publickey.js
index cc4c468..67f6dad 100644
--- a/src/identities/providers/publickey.js
+++ b/src/identities/providers/publickey.js
@@ -1,41 +1,77 @@
 /**
- * @namespace module:IdentityProviders.IdentityProviders-PublicKey
- * @description PublicKey Identity Provider
+ * @module PublicKeyIdentityProvider
+ * @memberof module:IdentityProviders
+ * @description
+ * The PublicKey Identity Provider signs and verifies an identity using the
+ * public key of a private/public key pair.
  */
 import { toString as uint8ArrayToString } from 'uint8arrays/to-string'
-import IdentityProvider from './interface.js'
 import { signMessage, verifyMessage } from '../../key-store.js'
 
+/**
+ * The type of identity provider.
+ * @return string
+ * @const
+ */
 const type = 'publickey'
 
-class PublicKeyIdentityProvider extends IdentityProvider {
-  constructor ({ keystore }) {
-    super()
+/**
+ * Verifies an identity using the identity's id.
+ * @param {module:Identity} identity
+ * @return {boolean} True if the identity is valid, false otherwise.
+ * @static
+ */
+const verifyIdentity = identity => {
+  const { id, publicKey, signatures } = identity
+  return verifyMessage(signatures.publicKey, id, publicKey + signatures.id)
+}
 
-    if (!keystore) {
-      throw new Error('PublicKeyIdentityProvider requires a keystore parameter')
-    }
+/**
+ * Instantiates the publickey identity provider.
+ * @return {module:IdentityProviders.IdentityProvider-PublicKey} A public key identity provider function.
+ */
+const PublicKeyIdentityProvider = ({ keystore }) => {
+  /**
+   * @namespace module:IdentityProviders.IdentityProvider-PublicKey
+   * @memberof module:IdentityProviders
+   * @description The instance returned by {@link module:IdentityProviders.IdentityProvider-PublicKey}.
+   */
 
-    this._keystore = keystore
+  if (!keystore) {
+    throw new Error('PublicKeyIdentityProvider requires a keystore parameter')
   }
 
-  // Returns the type of the identity provider
-  static get type () { return type }
-
-  async getId ({ id } = {}) {
+  /**
+   * Gets the id.
+   * @memberof module:IdentityProviders.IdentityProvider-PublicKey
+   * @param {String} id The id to retrieve.
+   * @return {String} The identity's id.
+   * @instance
+   */
+  const getId = async ({ id } = {}) => {
     if (!id) {
       throw new Error('id is required')
     }
-    const key = await this._keystore.getKey(id) || await this._keystore.createKey(id)
+
+    const key = await keystore.getKey(id) || await keystore.createKey(id)
     return uint8ArrayToString(key.public.marshal(), 'base16')
   }
 
-  async signIdentity (data, { id } = {}) {
+  /**
+   * Signs an identity using the identity's id.
+   * @memberof module:IdentityProviders.IdentityProvider-PublicKey
+   * @param {*} data The identity data to sign.
+   * @param {Object} params One or more parameters for configuring Database.
+   * @param {string} [params.id] The identity's id.
+   * @return {string} A signature.
+   * @instance
+   */
+  const signIdentity = async (data, { id } = {}) => {
     if (!id) {
       throw new Error('id is required')
     }
 
-    const key = await this._keystore.getKey(id)
+    const key = await keystore.getKey(id)
     if (!key) {
       throw new Error(`Signing key for '${id}' not found`)
     }
@@ -43,11 +79,10 @@ class PublicKeyIdentityProvider extends IdentityProvider {
     return signMessage(key, data)
   }
 
-  static async verifyIdentity (identity) {
-    const { id, publicKey, signatures } = identity
-    // Verify that identity was signed by the ID
-    return verifyMessage(signatures.publicKey, id, publicKey + signatures.id)
+  return {
+    getId,
+    signIdentity
   }
 }
 
-export default PublicKeyIdentityProvider
+export { PublicKeyIdentityProvider as default, verifyIdentity, type }
diff --git a/src/key-store.js b/src/key-store.js
index 04c3254..8a09a56 100644
--- a/src/key-store.js
+++ b/src/key-store.js
@@ -21,9 +21,9 @@ const unmarshalPubKey = crypto.keys.supportedKeys.secp256k1.unmarshalSecp256k1Pu
 
 /**
  * Verifies a signature used for signing data.
- * @params {string} signature The generated signature.
- * @params {string} publicKey The derived public key of the key pair.
- * @params {string} data The data to be verified.
+ * @param {string} signature The generated signature.
+ * @param {string} publicKey The derived public key of the key pair.
+ * @param {string} data The data to be verified.
  * @return {boolean} True if the signature is valid, false otherwise.
  * @throws No signature given if no signature is provided.
  * @throws Given publicKey was undefined if no publicKey is provided.
@@ -60,8 +60,8 @@ const verifySignature = async (signature, publicKey, data) => {
 
 /**
  * Signs data using a key pair.
- * @params {string} key The key to use for signing data.
- * @params {string} data The data to sign.
+ * @param {string} key The key to use for signing data.
+ * @param {string} data The data to sign.
  * @return {string} A signature.
  * @throws No signing key given if no key is provided.
  * @throws Given input data was undefined if no data is provided.
@@ -87,9 +87,9 @@ const verifiedCachePromise = LRUStorage({ size: 1000 })
 
 /**
  * Verifies input data against a cached version of the signed message.
- * @params {string} signature The generated signature.
- * @params {string} publicKey The derived public key of the key pair.
- * @params {string} data The data to be verified.
+ * @param {string} signature The generated signature.
+ * @param {string} publicKey The derived public key of the key pair.
+ * @param {string} data The data to be verified.
  * @return {boolean} True if the the data and cache match, false otherwise.
  * @static
  */
diff --git a/src/manifest.js b/src/manifest.js
index d389673..deef420 100644
--- a/src/manifest.js
+++ b/src/manifest.js
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ const hashStringEncoding = base58btc
  * @param {Object} params One or more parameters for configuring Manifest.
  * @param {IPFS} params.ipfs An instance of IPFS.
  * @param {module:Storage} [param.storage=module:Storage.Storage-ComposedStorage] An instance of Storage.
- * @returns {module:Manifest} An instance of Manifest.
+ * @return {module:Manifest} An instance of Manifest.
  * @instance
  */
 const Manifest = async ({ ipfs, storage } = {}) => {
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ const Manifest = async ({ ipfs, storage } = {}) => {
   /**
    * Gets the manifest data from the underlying storage.
    * @param {string} address The address of the manifest.
-   * @returns {*} The manifest data.
+   * @return {*} The manifest data.
    * @memberof module:Manifest~Manifest
    */
   const get = async (address) => {
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ const Manifest = async ({ ipfs, storage } = {}) => {
    * @param {string} type The type of the database.
    * @param {string} accessController The type of access controller.
    * @param {Object} meta Metadata.
-   * @returns {Object} A hash and manifest.
+   * @return {Object} A hash and manifest.
    * @throws name is required if no name is provided.
    * @throws type is required if no type is provided.
    * @throws accessController is required if no access controller is provided.
diff --git a/src/oplog/clock.js b/src/oplog/clock.js
index 9753970..038f5fc 100644
--- a/src/oplog/clock.js
+++ b/src/oplog/clock.js
@@ -1,33 +1,26 @@
 /* Lamport Clock */
-class Clock {
-  constructor (id, time) {
-    this.id = id
-    this.time = time || 0
-  }
+const compareClocks = (a, b) => {
+  // Calculate the "distance" based on the clock, ie. lower or greater
+  const dist = a.time - b.time
 
-  tick () {
-    return new Clock(this.id, ++this.time)
-  }
+  // If the sequence number is the same (concurrent events),
+  // and the IDs are different, take the one with a "lower" id
+  if (dist === 0 && a.id !== b.id) return a.id < b.id ? -1 : 1
 
-  merge (clock) {
-    this.time = Math.max(this.time, clock.time)
-    return new Clock(this.id, this.time)
-  }
+  return dist
+}
 
-  clone () {
-    return new Clock(this.id, this.time)
-  }
+const tickClock = (clock) => {
+  return Clock(clock.id, ++clock.time)
+}
 
-  static compare (a, b) {
-    // Calculate the "distance" based on the clock, ie. lower or greater
-    const dist = a.time - b.time
+const Clock = (id, time) => {
+  time = time || 0
 
-    // If the sequence number is the same (concurrent events),
-    // and the IDs are different, take the one with a "lower" id
-    if (dist === 0 && a.id !== b.id) return a.id < b.id ? -1 : 1
-
-    return dist
+  return {
+    id,
+    time
   }
 }
 
-export default Clock
+export { Clock as default, compareClocks, tickClock }
diff --git a/src/oplog/conflict-resolution.js b/src/oplog/conflict-resolution.js
index 06b52a4..d4b4339 100644
--- a/src/oplog/conflict-resolution.js
+++ b/src/oplog/conflict-resolution.js
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import Clock from './clock.js'
+import { compareClocks } from './clock.js'
 
 /**
  * Sort two entries as Last-Write-Wins (LWW).
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ import Clock from './clock.js'
  *
  * @param {Entry} a First entry
  * @param {Entry} b Second entry
- * @returns {number} 1 if a is latest, -1 if b is latest
+ * @return {number} 1 if a is latest, -1 if b is latest
  */
 function LastWriteWins (a, b) {
   // Ultimate conflict resolution (take the first/left arg)
@@ -27,11 +27,11 @@ function LastWriteWins (a, b) {
  * @param {Entry} a First entry to compare
  * @param {Entry} b Second entry to compare
  * @param {function(a, b)} resolveConflict A function to call if entries are concurrent (happened at the same time). The function should take in two entries and return 1 if the first entry should be chosen and -1 if the second entry should be chosen.
- * @returns {number} 1 if a is greater, -1 if b is greater
+ * @return {number} 1 if a is greater, -1 if b is greater
  */
 function SortByClocks (a, b, resolveConflict) {
   // Compare the clocks
-  const diff = Clock.compare(a.clock, b.clock)
+  const diff = compareClocks(a.clock, b.clock)
   // If the clocks are concurrent, use the provided
   // conflict resolution function to determine which comes first
   return diff === 0 ? resolveConflict(a, b) : diff
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ function SortByClocks (a, b, resolveConflict) {
  * @param {Entry} a First entry to compare
  * @param {Entry} b Second entry to compare
  * @param {function(a, b)} resolveConflict A function to call if the clocks ids are the same. The function should take in two entries and return 1 if the first entry should be chosen and -1 if the second entry should be chosen.
- * @returns {number} 1 if a is greater, -1 if b is greater
+ * @return {number} 1 if a is greater, -1 if b is greater
  */
 function SortByClockId (a, b, resolveConflict) {
   // Sort by ID if clocks are concurrent,
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ function SortByClockId (a, b, resolveConflict) {
 /**
  * A wrapper function to throw an error if the results of a passed function return zero
  * @param {function(a, b)} [tiebreaker] The tiebreaker function to validate.
- * @returns {function(a, b)} 1 if a is greater, -1 if b is greater
+ * @return {function(a, b)} 1 if a is greater, -1 if b is greater
  * @throws {Error} if func ever returns 0
  */
 function NoZeroes (func) {
diff --git a/src/oplog/entry.js b/src/oplog/entry.js
index 46ae6af..e215194 100644
--- a/src/oplog/entry.js
+++ b/src/oplog/entry.js
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ const hashStringEncoding = base58btc
  * @param {Clock} [clock] The clock
  * @param {Array<string|Entry>} [next=[]] An array of CIDs as base58btc encoded strings
  * @param {Array<string|Entry>} [refs=[]] An array of CIDs as base58btc encoded strings
- * @returns {Promise<Entry>}
+ * @return {Promise<Entry>}
  * @example
  * const entry = await Entry.create(identity, 'log1', 'hello')
  * console.log(entry)
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ const create = async (identity, id, payload, clock = null, next = [], refs = [])
   if (payload == null) throw new Error('Entry requires a payload')
   if (next == null || !Array.isArray(next)) throw new Error("'next' argument is not an array")
 
-  clock = clock || new Clock(identity.publicKey)
+  clock = clock || Clock(identity.publicKey)
 
   const entry = {
     id, // For determining a unique chain
@@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ const verify = async (identities, entry) => {
 /**
  * Check if an object is an Entry.
  * @param {Entry} obj
- * @returns {boolean}
+ * @return {boolean}
  */
 const isEntry = (obj) => {
   return obj && obj.id !== undefined &&
@@ -102,7 +102,7 @@ const isEqual = (a, b) => {
 /**
  * Decode a serialized Entry from bytes
  * @param {Uint8Array} bytes
- * @returns {Entry}
+ * @return {Entry}
  */
 const decode = async (bytes) => {
   const { value } = await Block.decode({ bytes, codec, hasher })
@@ -112,12 +112,12 @@ const decode = async (bytes) => {
 /**
  * Encode an Entry to a serializable form
  * @param {Entry} entry
- * @returns {TODO}
+ * @return {TODO}
  */
 const _encodeEntry = async (entry) => {
   const { cid, bytes } = await Block.encode({ value: entry, codec, hasher })
   const hash = cid.toString(hashStringEncoding)
-  const clock = new Clock(entry.clock.id, entry.clock.time)
+  const clock = Clock(entry.clock.id, entry.clock.time)
   return {
     ...entry,
     clock,
diff --git a/src/oplog/heads.js b/src/oplog/heads.js
index f9cb23e..df908ba 100644
--- a/src/oplog/heads.js
+++ b/src/oplog/heads.js
@@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ const Heads = async ({ storage, heads }) => {
  * This function is private and not exposed in the Log API
  *
  * @param {Array<Entry>} entries Entries to search heads from
- * @returns {Array<Entry>}
+ * @return {Array<Entry>}
  */
 const findHeads = (entries) => {
   entries = new Set(entries)
diff --git a/src/oplog/log.js b/src/oplog/log.js
index 730648f..41c3ef9 100644
--- a/src/oplog/log.js
+++ b/src/oplog/log.js
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@
  */
 import LRU from 'lru'
 import Entry from './entry.js'
-import Clock from './clock.js'
+import Clock, { tickClock } from './clock.js'
 import Heads from './heads.js'
 import ConflictResolution from './conflict-resolution.js'
 import MemoryStorage from '../storage/memory.js'
@@ -80,20 +80,20 @@ const Log = async (identity, { logId, logHeads, access, entryStorage, headsStora
 
   /**
    * Returns the clock of the log.
-   * @returns {Clock}
+   * @return {Clock}
    * @memberof module:Log~Log
    * @instance
    */
   const clock = async () => {
     // Find the latest clock from the heads
     const maxTime = Math.max(0, (await heads()).reduce(maxClockTimeReducer, 0))
-    return new Clock(identity.publicKey, maxTime)
+    return Clock(identity.publicKey, maxTime)
   }
 
   /**
    * Returns the current heads of the log
    *
-   * @returns {Array<module:Log~Entry>}
+   * @return {Array<module:Log~Entry>}
    * @memberof module:Log~Log
    * @instance
    */
@@ -105,7 +105,7 @@ const Log = async (identity, { logId, logHeads, access, entryStorage, headsStora
   /**
    * Returns all entries in the log
    *
-   * @returns {Array<module:Log~Entry>}
+   * @return {Array<module:Log~Entry>}
    * @memberof module:Log~Log
    * @instance
    */
@@ -121,7 +121,7 @@ const Log = async (identity, { logId, logHeads, access, entryStorage, headsStora
    * Retrieve an entry
    *
    * @param {string} hash The hash of the entry to retrieve
-   * @returns {module:Log~Entry}
+   * @return {module:Log~Entry}
    * @memberof module:Log~Log
    * @instance
    */
@@ -169,7 +169,7 @@ const Log = async (identity, { logId, logHeads, access, entryStorage, headsStora
       identity,
       id,
       data,
-      (await clock()).tick(),
+      tickClock(await clock()),
       nexts,
       refs
     )
@@ -353,7 +353,7 @@ const Log = async (identity, { logId, logHeads, access, entryStorage, headsStora
    * @param {string} options.gte Beginning hash of the iterator, inclusive
    * @param {string} options.lt Ending hash of the iterator, non-inclusive
    * @param {string} options.lte Ending hash of the iterator, inclusive
-   * @returns {Symbol.asyncIterator} Iterator object of log entries
+   * @return {Symbol.asyncIterator} Iterator object of log entries
    *
    * @examples
    *
@@ -473,7 +473,7 @@ const Log = async (identity, { logId, logHeads, access, entryStorage, headsStora
   /**
    * Check if an object is a Log.
    * @param {Log} obj
-   * @returns {boolean}
+   * @return {boolean}
    * @memberof module:Log~Log
    * @instance
    */
diff --git a/src/storage/composed.js b/src/storage/composed.js
index a382842..388d33d 100644
--- a/src/storage/composed.js
+++ b/src/storage/composed.js
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@
   * @function
   * @param {module:Storage} storage1 A storage instance.
   * @param {module:Storage} storage2 A storage instance.
-  * @returns {module:Storage.Storage-Composed} An instance of ComposedStorage.
+  * @return {module:Storage.Storage-Composed} An instance of ComposedStorage.
   * @memberof module:Storage
   * @instance
   */
diff --git a/src/storage/ipfs-block.js b/src/storage/ipfs-block.js
index 6801c4e..e63d20f 100644
--- a/src/storage/ipfs-block.js
+++ b/src/storage/ipfs-block.js
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ const defaultTimeout = 30000
  * @param {number} [params.timeout=defaultTimeout] A timeout in ms.
  * @param {boolean} [params.pin=false] True, if the block should be pinned,
  * false otherwise.
- * @returns {module:Storage.Storage-IPFS} An instance of IPFSBlockStorage.
+ * @return {module:Storage.Storage-IPFS} An instance of IPFSBlockStorage.
  * @memberof module:Storage
  * @throw An instance of ipfs is required if params.ipfs is not specified.
  * @instance
diff --git a/src/storage/level.js b/src/storage/level.js
index fcdcef4..02fe9c6 100644
--- a/src/storage/level.js
+++ b/src/storage/level.js
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ const defaultValueEncoding = 'view'
  * LevelStorage.
  * @param {string} [params.path=defaultPath] The Level path.
  * @param {string} [params.valueEncoding=defaultValueEncoding] Value encoding.
- * @returns {module:Storage.Storage-Level} An instance of LevelStorage.
+ * @return {module:Storage.Storage-Level} An instance of LevelStorage.
  * @memberof module:Storage
  * @instance
  */
diff --git a/src/storage/lru.js b/src/storage/lru.js
index 4384cb6..bbe05f5 100644
--- a/src/storage/lru.js
+++ b/src/storage/lru.js
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ const defaultSize = 1000000
  * @param {Object} [params={}] One or more parameters for configuring
  * IPFSBlockStorage.
  * @param {string} [params.size=defaultSize] The number of elements to store.
- * @returns {module:Storage.Storage-LRU} An instance of LRUStorage.
+ * @return {module:Storage.Storage-LRU} An instance of LRUStorage.
  * @memberof module:Storage
  * @instance
  */
diff --git a/src/storage/memory.js b/src/storage/memory.js
index ff96549..239a9f4 100644
--- a/src/storage/memory.js
+++ b/src/storage/memory.js
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
 /**
   * Creates an instance of MemoryStorage.
   * @function
-  * @returns {module:Storage.Storage-Memory} An instance of LRUStorage.
+  * @return {module:Storage.Storage-Memory} An instance of LRUStorage.
   * @memberof module:Storage
   * @instance
   */
diff --git a/src/utils/create-id.js b/src/utils/create-id.js
index 4c8d774..a1e2bed 100644
--- a/src/utils/create-id.js
+++ b/src/utils/create-id.js
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 /**
  * Creates an id from an alphanumeric character list.
  * @param {number} [length=32] The length of the id.
- * @returns {string} An id.
+ * @return {string} An id.
  * @see {@link https://stackoverflow.com/questions/1349404/generate-random-string-characters-in-javascript}
  * @memberof module:Utils
  */
diff --git a/src/utils/ensure-ac-address.js b/src/utils/ensure-ac-address.js
index 9ed1660..fe39bf1 100644
--- a/src/utils/ensure-ac-address.js
+++ b/src/utils/ensure-ac-address.js
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ import pathJoin from './path-join.js'
  * Checks that the given address has '/_access' as the last part.
  * @function
  * @param {string} address The address to check.
- * @returns {string} The address appended with /_access.
+ * @return {string} The address appended with /_access.
  * @memberof module:Utils
  */
 export default address => {
diff --git a/test/identities/identities.test.js b/test/identities/identities.test.js
index 116e956..71f83a3 100644
--- a/test/identities/identities.test.js
+++ b/test/identities/identities.test.js
@@ -213,18 +213,30 @@ describe('Identities', function () {
     })
 
     it('false signature doesn\'t verify', async () => {
-      class IP {
-        async getId () { return 'pubKey' }
+      const IP = () => {
+        const verifyIdentity = async (data) => { return false }
 
-        async signIdentity (data) { return `false signature '${data}'` }
+        const FakeIdentityProvider = () => {
+          const getId = () => { return 'pubKey' }
 
-        static async verifyIdentity (data) { return false }
+          const signIdentity = (data) => { return `false signature '${data}'` }
 
-        static get type () { return 'fake' }
+          return {
+            getId,
+            signIdentity,
+            type: 'fake'
+          }
+        }
+
+        return {
+          default: FakeIdentityProvider,
+          verifyIdentity,
+          type: 'fake'
+        }
       }
 
-      addIdentityProvider(IP)
-      identity = await identities.createIdentity({ type: IP.type })
+      addIdentityProvider(IP())
+      identity = await identities.createIdentity({ type: IP().type })
       const verified = await identities.verifyIdentity(identity)
       assert.strictEqual(verified, false)
     })
diff --git a/test/oplog/clock.test.js b/test/oplog/clock.test.js
index 1afac73..67ebef7 100644
--- a/test/oplog/clock.test.js
+++ b/test/oplog/clock.test.js
@@ -1,11 +1,11 @@
-import Clock from '../../src/oplog/clock.js'
+import Clock, { tickClock, compareClocks } from '../../src/oplog/clock.js'
 import { strictEqual } from 'assert'
 
 describe('Clock', () => {
   it('creates a new clock', () => {
     const id = 'A'
     const time = 0
-    const clock = new Clock(id, time)
+    const clock = Clock(id, time)
     strictEqual(clock.id, id)
     strictEqual(clock.time, time)
   })
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ describe('Clock', () => {
   it('creates a new clock with default time', () => {
     const id = 'A'
     const time = 0
-    const clock = new Clock(id)
+    const clock = Clock(id)
     strictEqual(clock.id, id)
     strictEqual(clock.time, time)
   })
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ describe('Clock', () => {
   it('creates a new clock with time starting at 1', () => {
     const id = 'A'
     const time = 1
-    const clock = new Clock(id, time)
+    const clock = Clock(id, time)
     strictEqual(clock.id, id)
     strictEqual(clock.time, time)
   })
@@ -29,144 +29,104 @@ describe('Clock', () => {
   it('advances clock forward 1 tick', () => {
     const id = 'A'
     const time = 1
-    const clock = new Clock(id)
-    clock.tick()
+    const clock = tickClock(Clock(id))
     strictEqual(clock.time, time)
   })
 
   it('advances clock forward 2 ticks', () => {
     const id = 'A'
     const time = 2
-    const clock = new Clock(id)
-    clock.tick()
-    clock.tick()
+    const clock = tickClock(tickClock(Clock(id)))
     strictEqual(clock.time, time)
   })
 
-  it('merges clock2 into clock1', () => {
-    const id1 = 'A'
-    const clock1 = new Clock(id1)
-    const id2 = 'B'
-    const time2 = 2
-    const clock2 = new Clock(id2, time2)
-
-    clock1.merge(clock2)
-
-    strictEqual(clock1.id, id1)
-    strictEqual(clock1.time, time2)
-  })
-
-  it('merges two clocks with the same time', () => {
-    const id1 = 'A'
-    const time1 = 1
-    const clock1 = new Clock(id1, time1)
-    const id2 = 'B'
-    const time2 = 1
-    const clock2 = new Clock(id2, time2)
-
-    clock1.merge(clock2)
-
-    strictEqual(clock1.id, id1)
-    strictEqual(clock1.time, time1)
-  })
-
-  it('clones a clock', () => {
-    const id = 'A'
-    const time = 1
-    const clock = new Clock(id, time)
-    const clonedClock = clock.clone()
-
-    strictEqual(clonedClock.id, id)
-    strictEqual(clonedClock.time, time)
-  })
-
   describe('Compare clocks', () => {
     it('compares clocks when clock1\'s time is 1 less than clock2\'s', () => {
       const id1 = 'A'
       const time1 = 1
-      const clock1 = new Clock(id1, time1)
+      const clock1 = Clock(id1, time1)
       const id2 = 'B'
       const time2 = 2
-      const clock2 = new Clock(id2, time2)
+      const clock2 = Clock(id2, time2)
 
       const expected = -1
 
-      strictEqual(Clock.compare(clock1, clock2), expected)
+      strictEqual(compareClocks(clock1, clock2), expected)
     })
     it('compares clocks when clock1\'s time is 3 less than clock2\'s', () => {
       const id1 = 'A'
       const time1 = 1
-      const clock1 = new Clock(id1, time1)
+      const clock1 = Clock(id1, time1)
       const id2 = 'B'
       const time2 = 4
-      const clock2 = new Clock(id2, time2)
+      const clock2 = Clock(id2, time2)
 
       const expected = -3
 
-      strictEqual(Clock.compare(clock1, clock2), expected)
+      strictEqual(compareClocks(clock1, clock2), expected)
     })
 
     it('compares clocks when clock1\'s time is 1 more than clock2\'s', () => {
       const id1 = 'A'
       const time1 = 2
-      const clock1 = new Clock(id1, time1)
+      const clock1 = Clock(id1, time1)
       const id2 = 'B'
       const time2 = 1
-      const clock2 = new Clock(id2, time2)
+      const clock2 = Clock(id2, time2)
 
       const expected = 1
 
-      strictEqual(Clock.compare(clock1, clock2), expected)
+      strictEqual(compareClocks(clock1, clock2), expected)
     })
 
     it('compares clocks when clock1\'s time is 3 more than clock2\'s', () => {
       const id1 = 'A'
       const time1 = 4
-      const clock1 = new Clock(id1, time1)
+      const clock1 = Clock(id1, time1)
       const id2 = 'B'
       const time2 = 1
-      const clock2 = new Clock(id2, time2)
+      const clock2 = Clock(id2, time2)
 
       const expected = 3
 
-      strictEqual(Clock.compare(clock1, clock2), expected)
+      strictEqual(compareClocks(clock1, clock2), expected)
     })
 
     it('compares clocks when clock1\'s id is less than clock2\'s', () => {
       const id1 = 'A'
       const time1 = 1
-      const clock1 = new Clock(id1, time1)
+      const clock1 = Clock(id1, time1)
       const id2 = 'B'
       const time2 = 1
-      const clock2 = new Clock(id2, time2)
+      const clock2 = Clock(id2, time2)
 
       const expected = -1
 
-      strictEqual(Clock.compare(clock1, clock2), expected)
+      strictEqual(compareClocks(clock1, clock2), expected)
     })
 
     it('compares clocks when clock1\'s id is more than clock2\'s', () => {
       const id1 = 'B'
       const time1 = 1
-      const clock1 = new Clock(id1, time1)
+      const clock1 = Clock(id1, time1)
       const id2 = 'A'
       const time2 = 1
-      const clock2 = new Clock(id2, time2)
+      const clock2 = Clock(id2, time2)
 
       const expected = 1
 
-      strictEqual(Clock.compare(clock1, clock2), expected)
+      strictEqual(compareClocks(clock1, clock2), expected)
     })
 
     it('compares clocks when clock1 is the same as clock2', () => {
       const id = 'A'
       const time = 1
-      const clock1 = new Clock(id, time)
-      const clock2 = new Clock(id, time)
+      const clock1 = Clock(id, time)
+      const clock2 = Clock(id, time)
 
       const expected = 0
 
-      strictEqual(Clock.compare(clock1, clock2), expected)
+      strictEqual(compareClocks(clock1, clock2), expected)
     })
   })
 })
diff --git a/test/oplog/conflict-resolution.test.js b/test/oplog/conflict-resolution.test.js
index 615a949..d328ba8 100644
--- a/test/oplog/conflict-resolution.test.js
+++ b/test/oplog/conflict-resolution.test.js
@@ -31,22 +31,22 @@ describe('ConflictResolution', () => {
 
     it('returns -1 when first clock\'s id is less than second clock\'s', () => {
       const expected = -1
-      const record1 = { clock: new Clock('A') }
-      const record2 = { clock: new Clock('B') }
+      const record1 = { clock: Clock('A') }
+      const record2 = { clock: Clock('B') }
       strictEqual(ConflictResolution.SortByClockId(record1, record2, fallbackFn), expected)
     })
 
     it('returns 1 when first clock\'s id is greater than second clock\'s', () => {
       const expected = 1
-      const record1 = { clock: new Clock('B') }
-      const record2 = { clock: new Clock('A') }
+      const record1 = { clock: Clock('B') }
+      const record2 = { clock: Clock('A') }
       strictEqual(ConflictResolution.SortByClockId(record1, record2, fallbackFn), expected)
     })
 
     it('returns the clock when clocks have the same id', () => {
-      const expected = { clock: new Clock('A') }
-      const record1 = { clock: new Clock('A') }
-      const record2 = { clock: new Clock('A') }
+      const expected = { clock: Clock('A') }
+      const record1 = { clock: Clock('A') }
+      const record2 = { clock: Clock('A') }
       deepStrictEqual(ConflictResolution.SortByClockId(record1, record2, fallbackFn), expected)
     })
   })
@@ -59,22 +59,22 @@ describe('ConflictResolution', () => {
 
     it('returns -1 when a\'s time is less than b\'s', () => {
       const expected = -1
-      const record1 = { clock: new Clock('A', 1) }
-      const record2 = { clock: new Clock('B', 2) }
+      const record1 = { clock: Clock('A', 1) }
+      const record2 = { clock: Clock('B', 2) }
       strictEqual(ConflictResolution.SortByClocks(record1, record2, fallbackFn), expected)
     })
 
     it('returns 1 when a\'s time is greater than b\'s', () => {
       const expected = 1
-      const record1 = { clock: new Clock('A', 2) }
-      const record2 = { clock: new Clock('B', 1) }
+      const record1 = { clock: Clock('A', 2) }
+      const record2 = { clock: Clock('B', 1) }
       strictEqual(ConflictResolution.SortByClocks(record1, record2, fallbackFn), expected)
     })
 
     it('returns -1 when a\'s time is equal to b\'s', () => {
       const expected = -1
-      const record1 = { clock: new Clock('A', 1) }
-      const record2 = { clock: new Clock('B', 1) }
+      const record1 = { clock: Clock('A', 1) }
+      const record2 = { clock: Clock('B', 1) }
       strictEqual(ConflictResolution.SortByClocks(record1, record2, fallbackFn), expected)
     })
   })
@@ -82,29 +82,29 @@ describe('ConflictResolution', () => {
   describe('Last write wins', () => {
     it('returns -1 when a\'s time is less than b\'s', () => {
       const expected = -1
-      const record1 = { clock: new Clock('A', 1) }
-      const record2 = { clock: new Clock('B', 2) }
+      const record1 = { clock: Clock('A', 1) }
+      const record2 = { clock: Clock('B', 2) }
       strictEqual(ConflictResolution.LastWriteWins(record1, record2), expected)
     })
 
     it('returns 1 when a\'s time is greater than b\'s', () => {
       const expected = 1
-      const record1 = { clock: new Clock('A', 2) }
-      const record2 = { clock: new Clock('B', 1) }
+      const record1 = { clock: Clock('A', 2) }
+      const record2 = { clock: Clock('B', 1) }
       strictEqual(ConflictResolution.LastWriteWins(record1, record2), expected)
     })
 
     it('returns -1 when a\'s time is equal to b\'s', () => {
       const expected = -1
-      const record1 = { clock: new Clock('A', 1) }
-      const record2 = { clock: new Clock('B', 1) }
+      const record1 = { clock: Clock('A', 1) }
+      const record2 = { clock: Clock('B', 1) }
       strictEqual(ConflictResolution.LastWriteWins(record1, record2), expected)
     })
 
     it('returns the clock when a and b are the same', () => {
-      const expected = { clock: new Clock('A') }
-      const record1 = { clock: new Clock('A') }
-      const record2 = { clock: new Clock('A') }
+      const expected = { clock: Clock('A') }
+      const record1 = { clock: Clock('A') }
+      const record2 = { clock: Clock('A') }
       deepStrictEqual(ConflictResolution.LastWriteWins(record1, record2), expected)
     })
   })
@@ -112,17 +112,17 @@ describe('ConflictResolution', () => {
   describe('ConflictResolution records', () => {
     it('sorts by clock time', () => {
       const expected = [
-        { clock: new Clock('A', 1) },
-        { clock: new Clock('B', 2) },
-        { clock: new Clock('C', 3) },
-        { clock: new Clock('D', 4) }
+        { clock: Clock('A', 1) },
+        { clock: Clock('B', 2) },
+        { clock: Clock('C', 3) },
+        { clock: Clock('D', 4) }
       ]
 
       const records = [
-        { clock: new Clock('C', 3) },
-        { clock: new Clock('A', 1) },
-        { clock: new Clock('D', 4) },
-        { clock: new Clock('B', 2) }
+        { clock: Clock('C', 3) },
+        { clock: Clock('A', 1) },
+        { clock: Clock('D', 4) },
+        { clock: Clock('B', 2) }
       ]
 
       deepStrictEqual(records.sort(ConflictResolution.LastWriteWins), expected)
@@ -130,17 +130,17 @@ describe('ConflictResolution', () => {
 
     it('sorts by clock time when id is the same', () => {
       const expected = [
-        { clock: new Clock('A', 1) },
-        { clock: new Clock('A', 2) },
-        { clock: new Clock('A', 3) },
-        { clock: new Clock('A', 4) }
+        { clock: Clock('A', 1) },
+        { clock: Clock('A', 2) },
+        { clock: Clock('A', 3) },
+        { clock: Clock('A', 4) }
       ]
 
       const records = [
-        { clock: new Clock('A', 3) },
-        { clock: new Clock('A', 1) },
-        { clock: new Clock('A', 4) },
-        { clock: new Clock('A', 2) }
+        { clock: Clock('A', 3) },
+        { clock: Clock('A', 1) },
+        { clock: Clock('A', 4) },
+        { clock: Clock('A', 2) }
       ]
 
       deepStrictEqual(records.sort(ConflictResolution.LastWriteWins), expected)
@@ -148,17 +148,17 @@ describe('ConflictResolution', () => {
 
     it('sorts by clock id', () => {
       const expected = [
-        { clock: new Clock('A') },
-        { clock: new Clock('B') },
-        { clock: new Clock('C') },
-        { clock: new Clock('D') }
+        { clock: Clock('A') },
+        { clock: Clock('B') },
+        { clock: Clock('C') },
+        { clock: Clock('D') }
       ]
 
       const records = [
-        { clock: new Clock('C') },
-        { clock: new Clock('A') },
-        { clock: new Clock('D') },
-        { clock: new Clock('B') }
+        { clock: Clock('C') },
+        { clock: Clock('A') },
+        { clock: Clock('D') },
+        { clock: Clock('B') }
       ]
 
       deepStrictEqual(records.sort(ConflictResolution.LastWriteWins), expected)
@@ -166,17 +166,17 @@ describe('ConflictResolution', () => {
 
     it('sorts the same clock', () => {
       const expected = [
-        { clock: new Clock('A') },
-        { clock: new Clock('A') },
-        { clock: new Clock('B') },
-        { clock: new Clock('B') }
+        { clock: Clock('A') },
+        { clock: Clock('A') },
+        { clock: Clock('B') },
+        { clock: Clock('B') }
       ]
 
       const records = [
-        { clock: new Clock('B') },
-        { clock: new Clock('A') },
-        { clock: new Clock('B') },
-        { clock: new Clock('A') }
+        { clock: Clock('B') },
+        { clock: Clock('A') },
+        { clock: Clock('B') },
+        { clock: Clock('A') }
       ]
 
       deepStrictEqual(records.sort(ConflictResolution.LastWriteWins), expected)
diff --git a/test/oplog/entry.test.js b/test/oplog/entry.test.js
index bb04e1a..d382ca7 100644
--- a/test/oplog/entry.test.js
+++ b/test/oplog/entry.test.js
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ import rmrf from 'rimraf'
 import { copy } from 'fs-extra'
 import { Entry, Identities, KeyStore } from '../../src/index.js'
 import testKeysPath from '../fixtures/test-keys-path.js'
+import { tickClock } from '../../src/oplog/clock.js'
 
 const { create, isEntry } = Entry
 const keysPath = './testkeys'
@@ -79,7 +80,7 @@ describe('Entry', function () {
       const payload1 = 'hello world'
       const payload2 = 'hello again'
       const entry1 = await create(testIdentity, 'A', payload1)
-      entry1.clock.tick()
+      entry1.clock = tickClock(entry1.clock)
       const entry2 = await create(testIdentity, 'A', payload2, entry1.clock, [entry1])
       strictEqual(entry2.payload, payload2)
       strictEqual(entry2.next.length, 1)
diff --git a/test/oplog/join.test.js b/test/oplog/join.test.js
index 524ce66..c54d1fa 100644
--- a/test/oplog/join.test.js
+++ b/test/oplog/join.test.js
@@ -350,19 +350,19 @@ describe('Log - Join', async function () {
     strictEqual((await log4.clock()).time, 8)
 
     const expectedData = [
-      { payload: 'helloA1', id: 'X', clock: new Clock(testIdentity.publicKey, 1) },
-      { payload: 'helloB1', id: 'X', clock: new Clock(testIdentity2.publicKey, 1) },
-      { payload: 'helloD1', id: 'X', clock: new Clock(testIdentity4.publicKey, 1) },
-      { payload: 'helloA2', id: 'X', clock: new Clock(testIdentity.publicKey, 2) },
-      { payload: 'helloB2', id: 'X', clock: new Clock(testIdentity2.publicKey, 2) },
-      { payload: 'helloD2', id: 'X', clock: new Clock(testIdentity4.publicKey, 2) },
-      { payload: 'helloC1', id: 'X', clock: new Clock(testIdentity3.publicKey, 3) },
-      { payload: 'helloC2', id: 'X', clock: new Clock(testIdentity3.publicKey, 4) },
-      { payload: 'helloD3', id: 'X', clock: new Clock(testIdentity4.publicKey, 5) },
-      { payload: 'helloD4', id: 'X', clock: new Clock(testIdentity4.publicKey, 6) },
-      { payload: 'helloA5', id: 'X', clock: new Clock(testIdentity.publicKey, 7) },
-      { payload: 'helloD5', id: 'X', clock: new Clock(testIdentity4.publicKey, 7) },
-      { payload: 'helloD6', id: 'X', clock: new Clock(testIdentity4.publicKey, 8) }
+      { payload: 'helloA1', id: 'X', clock: Clock(testIdentity.publicKey, 1) },
+      { payload: 'helloB1', id: 'X', clock: Clock(testIdentity2.publicKey, 1) },
+      { payload: 'helloD1', id: 'X', clock: Clock(testIdentity4.publicKey, 1) },
+      { payload: 'helloA2', id: 'X', clock: Clock(testIdentity.publicKey, 2) },
+      { payload: 'helloB2', id: 'X', clock: Clock(testIdentity2.publicKey, 2) },
+      { payload: 'helloD2', id: 'X', clock: Clock(testIdentity4.publicKey, 2) },
+      { payload: 'helloC1', id: 'X', clock: Clock(testIdentity3.publicKey, 3) },
+      { payload: 'helloC2', id: 'X', clock: Clock(testIdentity3.publicKey, 4) },
+      { payload: 'helloD3', id: 'X', clock: Clock(testIdentity4.publicKey, 5) },
+      { payload: 'helloD4', id: 'X', clock: Clock(testIdentity4.publicKey, 6) },
+      { payload: 'helloA5', id: 'X', clock: Clock(testIdentity.publicKey, 7) },
+      { payload: 'helloD5', id: 'X', clock: Clock(testIdentity4.publicKey, 7) },
+      { payload: 'helloD6', id: 'X', clock: Clock(testIdentity4.publicKey, 8) }
     ]
 
     const values = await log4.values()